Nationalism in India
Idea of Modern Nationalism
Modern nationalism was based on idea of nation-states. Nation-states are geographical area which has its own Independent Government. People belonging to a state has Similar Culture..
Nationalism in India
In India, people belonging to different class or groups were facing difficulties due to colonialism hence the nationalist movement in India was raised against the colonial government. Congress with the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi tried to bring Different Classes and Groups of the society into one movement.Some of the popular movements were Non-Cooperation movement in which people refused to cooperate with Colonial Government and Civil-Disobedience Movement people peacefully started breaking the rules laid by colonial government
Impact of First World War
During these nationalist movement, first world war was happened which created new economic and political situations.
Economic Situation: Increase in defence expenditure caused increase in war loans, taxes, Custom Duties and introduction of income tax. The prices nearly got doubled from year 1913 to 1918. In 1918-1919 and 1920-1921 in many parts of India, failure of crop resulted in acute shortage of food. Thus it became difficult for common people to survive.
Political Situation: To fulfill the Soldier demand, forced recruitment is done in villages due to which villagers got angry.
Health Problems: During this time Influenza Epidemic worsened the situation. During this period about 12 to 13 Million People were died due to extreme scarcity of food and epidemic.
The Idea of Satyagraha
In South Africa race discrimination was a common thing. Mahatma Gandhi fought and achieved success against this system with the help of his popular method called Satyagraha.
Meaning of Satyagraha:
‘Satya’ suggests truth and ‘agraha’ suggests Insistence. Satyagraha suggests that to get the justice there, is no need of physical Violence instead non-violence resistance could persuade rulers to see the truth by appealing to their conscience.
Satyagraha Movements in India:
Mahatma Gandhi believes that Satyagraha could Unite all Indians. After coming to India in January 1915 he started organising satyagraha movements in various places. In 1916 he travelled to Champaran in Bihar and inspired the peasants i.e. small farmers to struggle against the cruel authority non-violently. Similarly In 1917 he organised satyagraha to support Peasants of Kheda in Gujarat as they could not pay the revenue and wanted it to be relaxed because of crop failure and plague epidemic.
Also in 1918 he organised a satyagraha movement to support the cotton mill workers in Ahmedabad.
The Rowlatt Act:
The Rowlatt Act was hurriedly Passed in 1919 by Imperial Legislative Council so as To stop the political activities against the government and can keep the suspects in the prison for two years.
Against this unfair law, Mahatma Gandhi on April 6, started a strike. In support to this rallies were organised in cities, workers stopped working and went on strike. Scared britishers started to put nationalists in jail and banned Mahatma Gandhi from entering in Delhi.
On 10 April, police fired upon a peaceful march in Amritsar as a result people responded with attack on government property such as banks, post offices so Martial law was imposed and General Dyer took the command.
On 13 April people were gathered in Jallianwala Bagh some came to protest against the government’s cruel rules, and others to attend baisakhi fair. General Dyer blocked the area and opened fire on the crowd and killed hundreds of people.
As this news spread people showed violent activities against government in response to this government repressed this movements with extreme cruelty. Thus seeing the violence Mahatma Gandhi stopped (Called Off) the movement. This movement is known as Rowlatt satyagraha.
Khilafat and Non-Cooperation
Introduction
The Rowlatt satyagraha was a widespread movement yet it was limited to cities and towns so
Mahatma Gandhi felt the need of more popular movement which could only be possible when Hindus and Muslims come close together.
Khilafat Movement:
When First world War was ended which resulted in defeat of Ottoman Turkey, there were rumours that the peace negotiation was going to be very harsh for the Ottoman emperor. Since the Ottoman emperor was also known as Khalifa as he was the head of Islamic world hence Khilafat movement was raised by muslims all over the world in support of Khalifa. In India Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919. The young leaders like Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali brothers started discussing this issue with Mahatma Gandhi. Mahatma Gandhi took this opportunity to bring Muslim and Hindus in one movement. In September 1920, at the calcutta session of the Congress, he convinced other leaders to start a non-cooperative movement in support of Khilafat as well as Swaraj.
Non-Cooperation Movement
Mahatma Gandhi in his book “Hind Swaraj” (1909) declared that Britishers established their control only because of cooperation of Indians thus if Indians refuse to cooperate with them then British rule will collapse within a year and India will get freedom i.e. Swaraj.
Gandhiji proposed that this movement should take place in stages. It should start with returning the titles given by government and boycott of government services such as army, police, schools, foreign food, foreign cloth. If in case government start repressing the movement then a full civil disobedience movement campaign would be launched.
Mahatma Gandhi and Shaukat ali travelled all over India to gather support for this movement.
Still many leaders in Congress were in opposition to this movement, they thought the movement might lead to violence. hence they were also not ready to boycott the council elections scheduled for November 1920. From September to December there was huge conflict within the congress.
Finally, In December 1920, Congress Session at Nagpur adopted the Non-Cooperation Movement with a compromise.
Differing Strands within the movement
Movement in Towns
Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement began in January 1921. In towns thousands of students left the government schools and colleges, teachers and headmasters resigned, lawyers left their legal practices.
Except Madras all over in India Council elections were boycotted. In Madras Justice Party believes that entering the council is one of the way to win power hence did not oppose the Council elections.
Economic Effects: With this movement Indian’s boycotted the foreign goods, paths to liquor shops blocked by protesters. large number of foreign clothes were burnt as a result the import of foreign cloth is decreased to half from year 1921 and 1922 and dropping its value from 102 crore to Rs 57 crore. With this the production of Indian textile mills and handlooms was raised.
Reasons for slowing down the movement:
Indian Khadi cloth is expensive than mill cloth thus it was not affordable to poor people.
Institutions alternatives to British institutions could not be developed at faster rate hence students and teachers had to go back to government schools and lawyers joined work in courts.
Rebellion in the Countryside:
In Awadh, the movement of peasants was led by Baba Ramchandra and it was against the talukdars and landlords as they charges extremely high rent and other taxes to peasants. Peasants had to work at landlord’s farm without any payment known as Begar. landlords had grabbed all their lands. The peasants movement demanded reduction of all taxes, abolition of Begar, and Social boycott of cruel landlords.
Many places panchayat organised nai-dhobi bandhs so as to prevent landlords from the service of barbers and washermen.
In 1920 Jawaharlal Nehru went to Awadh and with Baba Ramchandra and other few leaders formed Oudh Kisan Sabha. Within a month it raised its 300 branches in the other villages. This struggle is integrated in Non-cooperation movement.
In 1921 The houses of talukdars and landlords were attacked, bazaars were looted, and grain hoards were also captured.
In Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, government closed the forest areas and prevented tribal peasants to collect firewood, fruits and graze their cattle. Government also started forcing them to contribute begar for road building.
A militant guerrilla movement was raised with the leadership of Alluri Sitaram Raju who claimed himself as a person with special powers and announced publicly as spirit of God. He spread greatness of Mahatma Gandhi and the Non-Cooperation Movement but at the same time he stated confidently that India would get freedom only by the use of force. Inspired people attacked police stations, attempted to kill british officials which turned into guerilla warfare. Later Raju was captured and put to death in 1924.
Swaraj in Plantations:
In Assam under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were not allowed or very rarely allowed to leave the tea garden. When these heard Non-Cooperation Movement then took it as freedom to move to their native places. They also believed that Gandhi Raj is coming and everyone would get land in their villages. Thousands of boycott the working and started going to their native places without permission of authority. But during their way due to strike of railways and steamer they were caught by the police and cruelly beaten by them.
Different Interpretations of Swaraj:
Peasants of Awadh viewed it as military war to bring back freedom. Tribes viewed this movement as the way to stop their sufferings. All of these instances interpreted “Swaraj” in their own way which were not defined by Congress programme. Though it was emotionally related to all-India agitation.
Towards Civil Disobedience
Withdrawal of Non-Cooperation Movement:
Non-cooperation movement was becoming more and more violent with the time so Mahatma Gandhi decided to withdraw this movement.
Also some leaders of congress like C. R. Das, Motilal Nehru believes that by taking part in Provincial Council Elections they could oppose the British Policies, show that the government is not actually democratic and could seek for reforms.
While other leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose strongly believed in more powerful movement for full independence of India.
Increased Misery of Peasants
In addition to this internal debate, worldwide Economic Depression during late 1920s worsened the situation. Agricultural Prices Went Down, the Demand for Agricultural goods decreased, and their export is declined. Due to which peasants came under serious problems like selling their harvest and Paying the Revenue.
Entry of Simon Commision
During this period the new Tory Government of England formed Statutory Commision under Sir John Simon. It was formed against the Nationalist Movement in India. It examines the functioning of Constitutional System in India and suggest changes. Since the commission did not have any Indian member so there will be no chance to get benefit to Indians. This commision is opposed by demonstration by all parties together with the slogan “Go Back Simon”.
Offer of Dominion Status
In order to stop this demonstration, The Viceroy, Lord Irwin, in October 1929 given an unclear assurance of ‘Dominion Status’ and said that there will be Round Table Conference to discuss future constitution. Dominion status signifies Semi-Independence to Country. Congress leaders were not satisfied with the offer of dominion status. A group within congress led by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose became more aggressive. Group that want to accept the offer gradually reduced their influence.
“Purna Swaraj”
In December 1929, Jawaharlal Nehru as head congress formally accepted the demand of ‘Purna Swaraj’ i.e. Full Independence for India. And it was declared that 26 January 1930 would be celebrated as Independence Day. On this day people were to take pledge to struggle for complete Independence of India. Unfortunately this celebration got very poor public support.
The Salt March and The Civil Disobedience Movement
Introduction
On, 31 January, 1930, Mahatma Gandhi ,sent ,a letter to, Viceroy Irwin ,presenting ,Eleven demands, stating ,the needs of, different ,classes and groups ,of the ,society. The idea, was to ,bring, different groups, of people ,into ,one movement. “Cancel the, salt tax”, is one of ,the demand,. Salt is, essential item, for food ,and, thus necessary ,for all, individuals. Gandhiji, declared that, most Cruel ,policy of ,government ,was ,tax on salt, and ,government’s ,control over, its production.
The letter, also provided ,an ultimatum, i.e. if demands ,were not fulfilled ,then ,congress would launch, a Civil ,Disobedience ,movement ,on 11 March. Since ,Irwin, was ,not ready ,to Negotiate, Mahatma Gandhi, started ,“The Salt, March” ,along with, 78 ,trusted Volunteers.
The Salt, March
This march ,was ,240 miles long, from Gandhiji’s ashram ,in Sabarmati ,to ,Gujarati Coastal, town of Dandi. They travelled ,10 miles, per day ,for 24 days. During ,their journey ,Gandhiji, explained, the meaning of ,Swaraj to, thousands ,of people, came to ,listen Gandhiji ,and ,requested them, to disobey ,the British, peacefully.
On ,6 April ,Gandhiji reach, to Dandi, he violated, the British Law, peacefully, by producing ,salt by ,boiling seawater. The Salt, March, marked, the rising, of Civil, Disobedience, Movement.
Difference between, Non-cooperation, and, Civil Disobedience
Non-Cooperation was to refuse cooperation with British but Civil Disobedience suggests refuse to cooperate as well as to break the british laws.
Effect, of The, Movement:
Everywhere ,in the, country ,salt laws ,were broken, demonstrations ,were held ,in front, of government ,salt factories, foreign clothes, were, boycotted, people were ,stopped ,peacefully from entering ,into ,Liquor Shops, peasants, refused ,to pay, revenue, and ,chaukidari taxes, people resigned ,government jobs, forest people ,violated, forest laws.
Brutal, Repression, by ,British Government
British government, was worried, about, the Movement. they started, arresting ,Congress leaders ,one by one, leading,to Violent, Clashes. When ,Abdul Ghaffar ,Khan, devotee of ,Mahatma ,Gandhi ,was ,arrested in, 1930, angry crowd ,held, demonstration ,in streets of ,Peshawar ,even if ,there were, armed police. When, Mahatma Gandhi, himself ,was arrested, then ,industrial workers ,of Sholapur, attacked ,on all ,structures ,which were ,symbol of ,British rule e.g. Police posts, Municipal buildings. Government ,responded with, brutal repression, beating, thousands, and ,keeping people, in jail.
Round Table, Conference, in London
In such ,situation, Mahatma Gandhi ,again decided ,to call ,off the, movement. He signed ,an agreement, with ,Irwin on, 5 March, 1931, known as ,Gandhi-Irwin, Pact. With this ,pact Gandhiji agreed to, participate ,in ,Round Table ,Conference, in London, and ,government ,agreed to ,release the, political prisoners. Gandhiji ,went to ,London ,for the ,conference ,but, came back Disappointed,. When he ,came back ,he saw, Ghaffar Khan ,and ,Jawaharlal Nehru ,was, in jail, Congress, had been ,declared ,illegal. Meetings, demonstrations, boycott ,were strictly ,banned. Thus ,Gandhiji, re-launched, the movement. But the, movement, lost its, momentum ,until 1934.
How Participants Saw the Movement – 1
Different social groups joined the movement with different reasons each have different meaning of swaraj.
Rich Peasants: Rich peasants were producer of Commercial Crop. Because of trade depression and falling crop prices these were not able to pay the government’s revenue demand. Government rejected their request for reduction in revenue demand. For these Peasants fight for struggle was a struggle against High Revenues. They organised communities and participated in boycott programmes. When Gandhiji called off the movement then these were disappointed as they would have to pay revenues because of this reason they refused to take part in the movement when it was restarted.
The Poor Peasants: Poor peasants cultivate rented lands obtained from Landlords. Due to Trade Depression, and Falling Crop Prices they were not able to pay their rent too. So these peasants wanted landlords to excuse their rent along with reduction in revenue demand. Their movement was led by Socialists and Communists and was not supported by Congress. Because Congress was worried that if they supported poor peasant,then the rich peasants and landlords might become upset and remove their support.
The Business Class: During first world war the business class constituting merchants and industrialists Made huge profits and Became powerful. To expand their business they wanted Relaxation in Governmental Policies and also wanted protection against Import of Foreign Goods and changes in exchange ratio such that it would discourage imports. They formed Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927. These were led by top industrialists such as Purushottamdas Thakurdas and G. D. Birla. Business class supported the movement economically and also boycotted the imported goods. But failure of the Round Table Conference, reduced the influence of swaraj on the business class. They were started fearing about the Militant Activities and growing influence of socialism in Younger Members of Congress.
How Participants Saw the Movement – 2
The Industrial Working Classes: Only Industrial workers of Nagpur region took part in the Movement but majority of industrial working class did not took part because their demands are mostly against the Industrialists. Seeing that industrialists were coming closer to the Congress they started going away from the movement. working class involved in the movement because of low wages and poor working conditions. Railway workers, dockworkers, mine workers showed participation in movement by Boycott Campaigns, Protest Rallies. Congress were not willing to accept their participation because it may lead to end of support from industrialists.
Women: Civil Disobedience movement was large scale participation of women. During Dandi March thousands of women came to listen to Gandhiji. Women participated in protest marches, and stopped people from going into liquor shops and foreign cloth.
In urban areas women involved in movement belongs to high-caste whereas in Rural areas women from rich families participated in the movement.
Gandhiji believed that the duty of women is to Look after Home and Health, be Good Mothers and good wives. And hence congress hesitated to allow women in the movement.
The Limits of Civil Disobedience
The Untouchables i.e. Dalits: For long time congress did not involved the nation’s Untouchables’, i.e. dalits or Oppressed People because They feared from Sanatanis i.e. conservative High-Caste Hindus.
Mahatma Gandhi declared that it is not possible to get Swaraj if Untouchability was not Eliminated. He called ‘untouchables’ as Harijans i.e. children of God. He Opened Doors of Temples for these people. He organised Satyagraha so as to provide them Access to Public Wells, tanks, roads, and schools. He persuaded upper caste-people to change their heart and give up this discrimination.
But many Dalit Leaders wanted political solutions such as Reservation, Access to Education, and Separate Region for Dalit from where they can choose member for Legislative Assembly. Thus dalit participation in the movement was limited.
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar organised dalit into Depressed Class Association in 1930. This association clashed with Mahatma Gandhi in second Round Table Conference and demanded separate Electorate for dalits. When British Government agreed the demand, Gandhiji started Fast unto death because the separate electorates may cause problems for integration of society. In Poona Pact of September 1932 the Depressed Caste got reservation of seats in provincial and central legislative councils.
Muslim Political Organisations: Some Muslim Political Organisations also did not took part in Civil Disobedience Movement. These groups started feeling ‘separated’ after the decline of Non-cooperation-Khilafat Movement. Visibly it was observed that congress had growing influence of Hindus due to which relations between Hindus and Muslims worsened and with the passage of time Hindu-Muslim clashes became common issues.
Again the efforts were made in 1927, to reunite Muslims and Hindus but it was not possible. Muhammad Ali Jinnah a leader of Muslim League stated Muslim Support will be given if muslims would get assured seats in Central Assembly and representation proportional to proportion of Population in Muslim Dominated regions e.g. Punjab, Bengal. This proposal was strongly opposed by M. R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha in All Party Conference in 1928 and thus muslims decided to not to support civil disobedience movement.
The Sense of Collective Belonging
People came together and fought for freedom collectively with the feeling of nationalism. With this, cultural activities such as History and literature, folklore and songs, popular drawings and symbols were also important in generating feeling of nationalism.
Image of Bharatmata:
Most often the nation is symbolised as an image. e.g. In twentieth century such an image of Bharat Mata created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay helped nationalism to grow. In this painting Bharatmata is presented as calm, composed, divine and spiritual. Soon after this, different artist presented bharat mata in different forms.
Devotional songs:
In 1870s he wrote ‘Vande Mataram’ anthem as a devotion to motherland. He included this anthem in his novel Anandamath. The song was widely sung during swadeshi movement in Bengal.
Folklore:
The sense of collective belonging also developed by Indian folklore i.e. traditional songs. Nationalist started recording the folk tales in the form of song, sung by bards i.e. a type of poet. They started visiting villages for collecting such folk songs. They believed that these folk songs could help in preserving our folk tradition. In Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore himself started collecting ballads, nursery rhymes, and myths and also led the movement of reviving the folk. In Madras, Natesa Sastri published “The Folklore of Southern India” a four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales.
Flag:
National leaders now became more aware of such symbols and icons in order to unite all people. Thus during swadeshi movement in Bengal, tricolour flag (i.e. red, green and yellow) was designed. It consists of eight lotuses representing eight provinces of british India and a crescent moon representing, Hindus and Muslims.
Gandhi in 1921 designed swaraj flag which had same tricolour and spinning wheel in the center suggesting ‘self-help’.
Reinterpretation of History:
Britishers saw Indians as backward and primitive. They saw Indians as not incapable of ruling themselves. Thus nationalist felt the need of reinterpretation of the history. They started showing India’s great achievements, they wrote about famous developments in ancient times in areas such as arts and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade and showed that how much capable India was before the colonial domination.