‘Dawn of The Century’ by E. T. Paull
This is a music book written by E. T. Paull and published by E. T. Paull Music Co. The picture on the cover page has the name ‘Dawn of the Century. At the centre there is a goddess-like picture carrying a flag of Industrialisation
‘Dawn of The Century’ by E. T. Paull
This is a music book written by E. T. Paull and published by E. T. Paull Music Co. The picture on the cover page has the name ‘Dawn of the Century. At the centre there is a goddess-like picture carrying a flag of new century symbolised as the angel of progress. She was standing on a wheel with wings, thus symbolising time. It can be observed that the wheel will take her into the future. Behind her there are signs of progress like railway, camera, machines, printing press and factory.
‘Two Magicians’
Before a hundred years ago, the pages of trade magazines were also glorifying the age of machines and technology. One of such image shows two magicians. At the top Aladdin is shown along with the magic lamp and the beautiful palace. At the bottom a modern mechanic is shown carrying modern tools and building new magics such as bridges, ships, towers, and tall buildings. The top image represents the East and the past whereas the bottom image represents the West and the modernity.
Inference from the Images
These images glorify the modern world. In these images modern world is represented as world of rapid technological improvements, world of machines, factories, railways and steamships. In simple words the history of Industrialisation tells the story of development.
Before the Industrial Revolution – 1
Proto-Industrialisation
We think that the word ‘Industrialisation’ is often associated with growth of factories. Industrial production signifies factory production and industrial workers signifies factory workers. We may also think that the age of industrialisation was began with the establishment of first factories. But actually the age of industrialisation was already started during the time of large scale production even if there were no factories this is the proto-industrial system. the word Proto signifies early form of industrialisation.
How the production increased
In Urban areas merchants were not getting chance to establish their business because of the control of urban crafts and trade guilds. These associations controls the production, regulate production and prices and restricts the new people from setting up the businesses. So merchants started moving to rural areas. In Rural areas merchants employed peasants and skilled workers and started producing goods for international market. In addition to this, the production was also increased with the expansion of world trade and colonialism.
At the countryside, peasants and skilled workers started working for merchants because of good incomes that the merchants were paying. Usually a merchant employees 20 to 25 people at each stage.
Close relationship between towns and countryside:
Merchants live in towns but their work was managed in countryside i.e. in rural areas. e.g. A merchant buy wool from wool stapler i.e. a person that sorts wool according to the fiber. The purchased wool and take it to spinners for production of yarn. Yarn is taken to weavers which produce fabric. Fabric is moved to fullers for cleansing it and so on to dyer for painting. All processes took place in rural areas except the finishing which was done in London and then the cloth was exported to international market.
Thus in proto-industrial system there were no factories. Merchants hire peasants and workers and produce goods and export these goods to international markets.
Before the Industrial Revolution – 2
The Coming up of Factory
In England factories were started in 1730s but actually these were multiplied in late eighteenth century.Most of the factories were cotton factories. From 1760 to 1787 with the improvement in production processes the demand of raw cotton was increased from 2.5 million pounds to 22 million pounds.
Previously most of the production processes took place in rural areas which suffered many problems such as low quality. Richard Arkwright created first cotton mill. He used modern machinery for the production processes and kept people under supervision so as to enhance the output in terms of quality and quantity.
The Pace of Industrial Change
In Britain the fastest growing industries were clearly cotton industry and metal industry. Till 1840s cotton industry was leading sector but after that iron and steel industry was leading industry since demand for iron and steel was increased because of railways developments. By 1873 the export of iron and steel was worth about￡77 million which was approximately double the cotton export. But still the pace of industrialisation was slow because of various reasons.
Displacing the traditional industries was not easy: It was not possible to displace old industries by new industries. Maximum workforce was continued to work in old industries. e.g. Even if Textile industries were introduced but still maximum production was from domestic units in rural areas.
Smaller pace of innovations: Due to lack of technological improvements, changes in traditional industries e.g. food processing, pottery, building, glass work, furniture making was slow.
Industrialists were not ready to accept new technology:
Merchants and industrialists were not ready to accept new technology. Many times machines broke down and the repairing was also costly.
Take the case of steam engine. Newcomen produced steam engine and patented as new engine in 1781. James Watt made improvements in this engine. The improved engine was manufactured by Matthew Boulton but unfortunately got no customer for years. This suggests the industrialists were not ready to accept new improved technology. There were only 321 steam engines in England out of which 80 were in cotton industries, nine in wool and rest in mining industries, canal work and ironworks.
Hand Labour and Steam Power – 1
There are various reasons with which industries did not want to buy steam power machines and wanted to continue with hand labour.
Plenty of Cheap Labour: During Victorian Britain there was plenty of labour available ready to work for very low wages so industrialists have no problem of Labour Shortages or huge Labour Costs. Thus they simply did not want costly machines that needs little labour.
so industrialists easily get Plenty of labour at cheapest wages. Thus they simply did not want costly machines
Seasonal, need ,of Labour: Many industries need labour on Seasonal basis. Since plenty of cheap labour was available hence industrialists prefer to hire workers on seasonal basis rather than a costly machine. E.g. Gas works and Breweries need labour especially in cold months. Book binders and Printers needed labour during December i.e. during Christmas festival.
Hand Labour produces wide range of products: With machines mass production of a standardised product is possible which include no variations. Market demands different designs which was only possible with the help of hand labour. e.g. in mid-nineteenth century about 500 different designs of hammers were produced and 45 different kinds of axes were produced all requiring human skills.
Upper class prefer products produced by Hands: The upper classes during Victorian Britain prefer things manufactured by hands. It was a thing of Prestige for them to have handmade things.
Countries of labour shortages: In case of countries that have less labour force, industrialists were interested in using machines as these will reduce their dependency on the human labour.
Hand Labour and Steam Power – 2
Life of the Workers: the life of workers was severely affected because of various factors.
Problems of Hiring process: There were large number of workers available in the market so possibility of getting a job was very less. Whenever new job opening was raised, hundreds of people travel to the workplace for getting hired. Under such situation the possibility of getting a job was mainly dependent on reference by existing employee. Those who did not have any network had to wait for weeks, in a queue. Some people spend their nights under bridges or in night shelters or sometimes in Night Refuges set up by industrialist, but majority of people used to stay in Causal Wards i.e. temporary accommodation by “Poor Law”, authorities
Seasonality of work: Usually most of the jobs were seasonal in nature means people got hired for few months. Thus after this period there were no job for workers. Some workers went to countryside to work in farms. Most workers comes under difficult problem of searching for other jobs.
Low Wages: Usually workers got wages on daily wage basis. The income was also dependent on the number of days worked by a worker. Thus people was getting less income and hence till mid-nineteenth century 10 % population was extremely poor.
Increased Prices: During Napoleonic War, the product prices were raised. Due to which workers could not buy the same quantity of things that they used to buy earlier.
New technology bring more misery to workers: “Spinning Jenny” a machine used for spinning process in woolen industry, need only one worker. It brought misery to women who survive on hand spinning. Thus the use of Jenny was opposed for long time.
Improvements in Employment after 1840s
After 1840s, job opportunities were raised by increasing building activities in cities, widening of roads, development of new railway stations, extensions of railway lines, digging tunnels, building drainage, sewers and embankments. Employment opportunities in transport industry was doubled. Thus the life of workers started improving.
Industrialisation in the Colonies – 1
The Age of Indian Textiles
Prosperity of Indian Textiles: Indian Silk and Cotton Goods dominated the International Market in textiles. Other countries also produces Coarser Cotton but the quality product was only obtained from India. These goods were transported by Armenian and Persian to Afghanistan, Eastern Persia and Central Asia by using camels and travelling across mountains and forests.
Main Ports Before Colonisation: Sea Trade was furnishing with main sea ports. Surat connected India to Gulf and Red Sea Ports, Masulipatam and Hoogly connected India with Southeast Asian Ports.
Involvement of Merchants and Bankers: Indian Merchants and Bankers were also involved in this network. Supply merchants gave work order and advances to Weavers and carry produced goods from Inland Regions to ports. At the port, Big Shipper & Export Merchants buy goods from supply merchants. The price negotiations was done by Brokers.
Rising Colonial Rule: After 1750’s, this system was breaking down as European Companies were gaining power. At first they Gained Concessions, than they gained Unique Rights of Trade. Because of this, the old ports of Surat and Hoogly were started Declining, export was decreased, Credit Activities Started Reducing, Local Bankers were not able to pay Debts. In the Last Years of 17th Century the Gross Value of Trade was Rs16 Million which was reduced to just 3 millions till 1740s. At the same time Bombay and Calcutta started growing. Trade from these new ports was under the control of European companies. Thus now traders had to work with Europeans in order to sustain.
Industrialisation in the Colonies – 2
What Happened to Weavers
Before political power of East India Company
During growth of East India Company, British cotton industries were not yet expanded so the Indian textile was in great demand in Europe and company was interested in getting more textile goods from India.
During 1760s and 1770s, Britishers were not established political control in Bengal and Carnatic so British traders had to face competition from French, Dutch, Portuguese and the local traders. They had to buy the goods at higher rates.
After political power of East India Company
After East India Company established its political power, the company took measures to eliminate the competition, ensured regular supply of textile goods and controlled their costs. Company did this in stepwise manner.
First, The company started reducing the number of textile related traders and brokers. To establish direct control over weavers, the company appointed gomasthas. Gomasthas supervise weavers, collect supplies and examine the quality of the cloth.
Second, Weavers were allowed to deal with company only and not with any other dealer. for that the company place the order and give advances to the weavers. Because of this weavers become restricted to handover the cloth to only gomasthas. Now weavers started accepting the advances in a hope to earn more. Weavers started giving their land on lease as they did not have time for anything except weaving. All family members were now involved in weaving process.
Problems due to gomasthas: Earlier, supply merchants had good relations with weavers but the new gomasthas were outsiders and thus had bad relations with weavers. They act arrogantly, bring Indian soldiers and peons into villages, punish weavers if the supply was delayed. Thus in many weaving villages often weavers had clashes with gomasthas.
In such conditions now weavers had no choice other than to sell their goods to company only even if they receive less money for what they sell.
So weavers in Carnatic and Bengal left their own villages and started moving to other villages, placed their loom there and started working there. At other places weavers opposed company and its officials. As the time passed weavers refused to take loans even if their workshops were closed.
Industrialisation in the Colonies – 3
Manchester Comes to India
In 1772, Henry Patullo, an officer of East India company said that the demand for Indian textiles could never decrease as other nations could not produce the textile goods of comparable quality.
But it was observed that textile export from India declined 33% to just 3% from year 1811 to 1850s.
Rise of cotton industries in England:
With the growth of cotton industries, the industrialists pressurised the government to impose import duties. Because of this, British goods or “Manchester goods” could be sold in Britain without facing any competition from India’s goods. Gradually the export of Indian products decreased and came to end but at the same time the import of textile goods in India from Britain started increasing. It reached to 50 per cent till 1870s.
Problems of Cotton Weavers:
For the cotton weavers there were two problems. First, the export was declining and second, they had to face competition from Manchester goods in local markets. The Manchester goods being manufactured by machines had lower costs than the products of hand weaving thus Indian weavers could not compete with them.
Supply cut off from US:
In addition to their misery new problem raised. Initially Britain was getting raw cotton from US but because of American Civil War the supply was cut off from US. So Britain started importing raw cotton from India. Because of which it became difficult for weavers to get good quality raw cotton as most of the raw cotton was exported to Britain. The less quantity of raw cotton led to increase in prices which become difficult for weavers to buy such a costly raw cotton.
Factories Come Up – 1
Introduction:
In India first cotton mill was established in 1854 in Bombay but actual production was started after Two years. At the end of 1862 about four mills started their production. These had 94000 spindles and 2150 looms.
During the same time jute mills also established in Bengal. first one in 1855 and the second mill in 1862. In 1860s, the Elgin Mill was established in Kanpur. Followed to this, first cotton mill of Ahmedabad was formed. In 1874, first spinning and weaving mill of Madras started its production.
The Early Entrepreneurs: From late eighteenth century, Britishers started exporting opium to China and importing tea from China. Many Indians started providing supporting services for this trade such as providing finance, procuring supplies, and shipping consignment. Some of these people wanted to become entrepreneur.
Dwarkanath Tagore, in Bengal,earned good capital through Export and other Support services and established six joint-stock companies in 1830s to 1840s. Joint-Stock suggest each partner of the company would bear proportional Losses of profits. Unfortunately during trade crisis in the world his business also stopped.
Dinshaw Petit and Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata, in Bombay, accumulated their income obtained from trade with China and Britain and used it to build industries.
Seth Hukumchand, established first Indian jute mill in Calcutta in 1917 also used money obtained from trading with China.
Similarly, Shiv Narayan Birla and Baldeo Das Birla were also established industries in India with the same way.
Other Trade Networks: To accumulate capital some merchants from madras started trading with Burma whereas some others formed links with Middle East and East Africa. Some people continued trade practices within India. These include carrying goods from one place to another, banking, transferring funds between cities and by financing the traders. With the accumulated money many of them opened factories.
Effect of Colonial Control:
With the colonial control now, Indian trade began to decline. Traders were barred from exporting manufactured goods, they were allowed to transfer only raw materials which was needed by Britishers.
Britishers slowly controlled large sector of Indian industries. During this time three new biggest companies were Bird Heilgers & Co. Andrew Yule and Jardine Skinner & Co. These industries gather capital, set up joint-stock companies and manage them. The financing was done mostly by Indians but still the investment and business related decisions were made by only European Agencies. British merchant-industrialists had their own chamber of commerce i.e. a type of business network, in which Indians were not allowed
Factories Come Up – 2
Where did workers come from?
Initially workers were from same district: Industries usually obtain workers from the nearby districts. Peasants and artisans i.e. person that create things by hand, visit industrial centers for work as they did not have work in villages. e.g. In Bombay cotton industries, during 1911 there were about 50% workers from neighbouring district Ratnagiri. Similarly mills of Kanpur get labour from villages of Kanpur district.
Workers started travelling longer distances to get jobs: As time passed, people started travelling longer distances in hope to get work in the mills.
More people, few jobs
During that time, getting a work was very difficult because the number of workers needed for an industry was very few and available workforce was very large. Even if the number of mills and industries were increasing still the same condition continued.
Most of the times the industrialists employ a old and trusted worker to recruit the workers called jobber. A jobber, call people from his village or in relation, offer them jobs and help them to settle in the city sometimes help them financially. Soon jobbers started demanding money and gifts from workers for his favour and also started controlling the lives of workers.
Increase in Industry workers:
Over time, the number of factory workers increased. In 1901, Indian factories got 5,84,000 workers but by 1946 number of workers increased to far more i.e. 24,36,000.
The Peculiarities of Industrial Growth – 1
Indian Industrial Production was dominated by European Managing Agencies. These agencies acquired lands at cheap rates from Colonial Government and started tea and Coffee plantations. they invested in Businesses such as mining, indigo and jute. These agencies just wanted products to export and not for selling in India.
During Late 19th Century: During late nineteenth century, Indian Businessman started establishing industries. These industries Produced Goods other than Manchester (Cotton) Goods and thus avoided competition with them. E.g. They produced Coarse Cotton Yarn which was used by handloom weavers in India or exported to China.
Changing Pattern of Industrialisation: During the beginning of twentieth Century series of changes led to Changing Pattern of Industrialisation. With “Swadeshi Movement” people started boycotting the Foreign Goods. So industrial groups came together and pressurised government to Increase Tariff Protection and give Other Concessions. Chinese and Japanese products started competing with Indian Products in Chinese market so export of Indian yarn to China decreased. Now Indian Industries shifted their production from yarn to cloth.
During First World War: The first world war made British Mills busy in producing goods for the war thus the export to India was declined. It became opportunity for Indian Industries in home market. With the prolongation of war, the product demand increased so Indian goods also started exporting to Britain. the export include Jute Bags, cloth for Army Uniforms, tents, leather boots, horse and Mule Saddles and other cloth related items. As a result existing factories prospered and new factories were developed. Employment increased, people started working in shifts to meet the demands.
After the War: After the war the economy of Britain was weakened. Britain was not able to compete with US, Germany and Japan neither it was able to gain old position in Indian Market. thus production collapsed in Britain. At the same time Indian Industries prospered.
The Peculiarities of Industrial Growth – 2
Predominance of Small Scale Industries
After first world war the industries in India were prospered. In India, the production of small scale factories dominated the production of large scale industries. Small scale industries were established in small workshops and household units located in narrow passages or in bylanes and Even in case of employment, most people were employed in small scale industries. In 1911 only 5%, and in 1931 just 10% population worked in large scale industries.
During nineteenth century the machine made cheap thread almost led to closing of spinning industry but anyhow the weavers were survived. In Twentieth century these weavers used handlooms and increased their production.
Technological Changes improved production:
Handicraft people started using new technologies like using Fly shuttle. It enabled weavers to weave wide piece of cloth. Moreover the labour need also decreased. In all over India about 35% of handlooms were fitted with fly shuttles. In Travancore, Madras, Mysore, Cochin, Bengal regions 70 to 80 per cent handlooms were fitted with fly shuttles.
Demand of cloth:
Some weavers produce coarse cloth targeting the poor people whereas some produce finer cloth to target rich people. The demand of poor people fluctuate with the situations. e.g. during bad agricultural production these people don’t get much income so they did not buy clothes. The demand for rich people remain continuous there is bad economic conditions among poors. e.g. Sale of Banarasi or Baluchari saris was evergreen. The mills could not duplicate the designs made of handicrafts such as saris, handkerchiefs, lungis so simply mills could not compete with them.
Life of Weavers and Craftspeople:
Weavers and Craftspeople often try to expand their production. for that they involve whole family in the production process. They have to work for long hours to meet the demand. Thus the life of these people were not happy.
Market for Goods
During British rule, British manufacturers attempted to take over Indian market. Against this Indian producers opposed the colonial control, they demanded tariff protection, they generated market for their products and extended it.
Advertising the goods
Businesses had to persuade the customer to buy their products. for that businesses used many ways:
Advertisements: Advertisements were tempting ways to attract customers. with these advertisements, businesses tried to shape the minds of people and make products appear desirable and necessary.
Ways of Advertising
Manchester Industrialists, label, place of manufacture and manufacturing company on their cloths. By labelling, the company want the buyer to become familiar with the company. The label was also a symbol of quality. e.g. The company’s motive behind labelling “Made in Manchester” was to make customer feel confident about buying the cloth.
How the advertisements presented
The advertisement did not have mere labels it also have beautifully illustrated images that signifies necessities of the product. Most of the times images of Indian gods and goddesses were shown and by looking the advertisement it appears as the god approved the product. Many times popular people were also presented in the advertisements. By seeing those it looks like “if you respect the person then you respect the product”.
Where these Advertisements presented
Till late nineteenth century, businesses were presenting these advertisements on calendars as calendars were used by almost everyone. These calendars were hung in tea shops, poor people’s home, offices and middle class apartments. Indian producers advertise nationalist messages such as “If you care about the nation, they buy products that Indians produce.